************************ *GENERAL ************************ see also xrefer - moral philosophy, history of - IEP - moral realism --- moral principles have an objective (not subjective) foundation moral skepticism --- no (knowable) objective morals moral relativism --- moral standars are relative to societies/cultures psychological egoism --- act out of self-interest Humean --- motivated by emotions, slave of passions virtue theory --- less emphasis on learning rules and more on good habits of character (benevolence, etc) for Aristotle virtues are good habits that regulate emotions, mean deontic theory --- duty, rights, categorical imperative consequentialist theory --- ethical egoism, altruism, utilitarianism (rule/act) ************************ *ARISTOTLE ************************ - IEP, VIRTUE - Contemporary issues --- whether virtue ethics can be completely independent of moral rules (eliminatist/essentialist), good persons rather than actions - XREFER, HAPPINESS - eudaimonia, quality of ones life as a whole (call no man happy until he is dead), fulfilment of one's potentialities - STANFORD - eudaimonia --- happiness or flourishing (well-spirit) arete --- virtue, excellence search for highest good highest good is desirable for itself, not desirable as the means to another ends, and all other goods are desirable as means to the highest good where does happiness come from? reason a lifetime (not just a moment) living well consists in activities caused by the rational soul in accordance with virtue or excellence happiness is virtuous activity excersing certain skills or virtues need to be schooled in virtue (moral education) mean and stable disposition (hexis), internal harmony virtue as an intermediate between excess and deficiency a happy life must include pleasure pleasures may interfere with other activities the highest good is a pleasure take pleasure in the pursuit and achievement of good pleasure is not the only good; so is wisdom - XREFER, VIRTUES - virtue ethics claims that morality is understood in terms of virtues, not rules or goals Aristotle, Nussbaum, Rorty, Foot, Williams - VIRUTE, DRURY UNIV - virtue --- excellence in fulfillment of particular function happiness --- sense of well-being from acheiving excellence ************************ *MILL ************************ - XREFER, HAPPINESS - happiness as the ultimate aim of human action happiness as standard for judging rightness/wrongness of action actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote (general) happiness pleasure and absense of pain quality of pleasures - XREFER, UTILITARIANISM - outcome utilitarianism, overall well-being consequentialism acts are morally right or obligatory because of how much well-being they produce act --- concequences of single action rule --- consequences of general maxim - WILLIAMS - problems with utilitarianism: impersonal no personal projects no integrity (see marked pages) - SPARKNOTES - utilitarianism as pleasure principle happiness not just bentham's hedonism actions are right in proportion to happiness they promote happiness is pleasure and absense of pain different kinds of pleasures (higher intellectual ones) achievement of goals such as virtuous living leads to happiness utilitarianism coincides with natural sentiments to happiness things people want are means to the end of happiness criticism: inadequate protection of individual rights happiness more complicated than Mill says ************************ *KANT ************************ - XREFER, DEONTIC - consequentialist --- rightness of act depends upon outcome deontic --- duty, one must, acts are inherently right/wrong problems with deontic: can't kill innocent to save others separation of right and good - GROUNDING - only good is good will non-moral scenarios: prudent merchant not overcharging beneficence done because it causes inner pleasure cannot: allow suicide lie to borrow money let talent go to waste not help others there imperatives: universal law ends, not means kingdom of ends - SPARKNOTES - when are actions moral: (1) actions are moral if and only if they are undertaken for the sake of morality alone (2) moral quality judged not be consequences of action but by modem (3) actions are moral if and only if undertaken out of respect for moral law categorical imperative moral law as general formula applicable in all situations (1) we should act in such a way that we would want the maxim of our actions to become a universal law (2) don't treat others as a means to an end; people are ends in themselves (3) kingdom of ends, all rational beings are makers and subjects of all laws freedom, autonomy, rationality * IEP, CAT IMP * categorical imperative (1) law of nature: act as if the maxim of your action were to become through your will a universal law of nature (2) end itself: treat people never as means, always as ends (3) autonomy: so act that your will can regard itself at the same time as making universal law through its maxims (4) kingdom of ends: so act as if your were through your maxims a law-making member of a kingdom of ends ************************ *RAWLS ************************ - XREFER, ORIGINAL POSITION - original position --- imaginary situation in which principles of justice are chosen veil of ignorance --- don't know what place in society we would occupy hypotehtical social contract ensures principles chosen will be fair to all - RAWLS, GLOSSARY - maximin --- maximize the minimum (least-worst possible outcome) principles of justice: each person has an equal right to basic liberties (liberty principle) social/economic inequalities must be open to all and must be to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged members of society (difference principle) - RAWLS, LECTURE 7 - principles that would be chosen by individuals in original position aim at reflective equilibrium - RAWLS, JUSTICE - under veil we don't know about ourselves so we choose minimax (not a bad article for veil question) - RAWLS, ORIGINAL - objection to utilitarianism --- does not protect the one from the many consider worst-off (again, good for veil question)